In 1894, Jia Wu war broke out, it is the inevitable result of the policy implementation of the Japanese government has long premeditated aggression and expansion of the China. A war Jia Wu, the Qing government to cede territory, compensation, "trade", Japan became the Asian upstart. Using the plunder of the huge compensation, the Japanese launched a new round of military buildup, and put into economic development, founded Yawata iron etc., adding textile factories, railroads port, the founder of the banks, the development of Hokkaido, the Japanese capitalism development entered the new stage. After the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, established in the Light Industry Department of industrial revolution of capitalist economy, as the light industrial sector labor women, living status also occurred great changes. The life of the self - sufficiency is replaced by the consumption society, which forms the life pattern which takes the city as the center, and the female employment opportunities. Women's education development by leaps and bounds, medium education popularization. On the other hand, sericulture expand, enhance the labor intensity of a textile factory, the popularity of school education become an important approach to the concept of good wife and virtuous mother doctrine and the Tenno system nation penetration and status of Japanese women undergoing subtle changes.
One, the road to open women's employment, but women's rights and interests are infringed
In Japan's social and cultural traditions, the division of labor within the main male and female is not only an important criterion to distinguish the role of gender roles, but also become a strong chain of Japanese women to participate in society, in the former modern Japan, the family can be said to be the Japanese women's life and activity center. The Meiji Restoration marked the beginning of the process of Japanese modernization, Japanese women to enter the national economic life. After the Sino Japanese War, the government vigorously establishes the textile factories, folk also rise to establish silkworm spinning workshop, coupled with the introduction of western culture, technology, way of life, the idea of people change, the development of the industrial revolution also contributed to the changes in people's lives, women began to large step into society, go the way of employment.
Women into the ranks of industrial workers. In the process of the forming and development of the world capitalist industrialization system, the cotton industry because with the human material life closely connected and is easy to form the characteristics of intensive production, in the economic development of countries in the occupied first place, Japan is also true. In 1883, Shibuzawa Eichi founded the Osaka textile company, after a large number of modern private textile factories have been born. Most of the workers entering the textile mill are women. Percentage of female workers in the textile industry workers, in 1891 was 70%, amounted to 77% in 1898, to 1899, in the national enterprise 35.7 million workers, workers in the 25 million cotton industry, accounted for 70%, of which women up to 86%, has become an important part of industrial workers. So some scholars say that Japan's capitalist industry is completely developed by women ". Women in a part is out earning taxi family daughter, most of it is make ends meet peasant women, their labor with obvious "family allowance" in nature, as the textile workers investigation summary report said: "applicants are rarely volunteered to become the textile factory workers is because the family economy, under the requirements of the fathers become workers, wage income is also used for subsidies family life" a variety of other types of factories, fisheries, and mine have begun the recruitment targets for women.
Career women began to appear. The first is teachers to become the largest employment of women in the field, with the development of modern education before and after the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, female teachers greatly increased. Only in primary school as an example, in 1873, there were 311 primary school female teachers, accounting for 1.2% of the total number of primary school teachers. After the Sino Japanese War of 1898, there have been nine 901 proportion rose to 11.8%; in 1923 (Taisho 12 years), the number has reached 65 350 people, the proportion reached 32.7%. Secondly, in all areas of the female figure. As in the communications industry, in 1890, 9 women to become Tokyo and Yokohama between private telephone communications business operator, by 1910, the national female telephone operator has been more than 3000 people. Female doctors are beginning to appear. 1884, the Meiji government officially allows women to participate in the opening of the doctor qualification examination, opened the door to women's practice, the number of female doctors increased year by year. Women enter the doctor this has always been respected by the noble occupation, breaking the male dominate the medical field of the situation, improve the social status of women.
Japan is a budding capitalist countries, but the capitalists of the workers and cruel oppression and exploitation, and no less than the old capitalist countries. Especially in the enterprise gradually by official turn for private and private capital widening, venture capitalists to pursuit of profit for the direct purpose, naked squeeze and exploitation of workers. Before and after the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895 female industrial workers mainly concentrated in the fiber industry, and was referred to as the "typical native labor relations" -- a high labor intensity, low wages, personal freedom restricted mainly to characteristics of Japanese scholars Oka Chikazuo to fiber industry of employment, the labor rights and interests of workers by serious violations.
The first is labor intensity. Capitalists in order to obtain huge profits, the working time often in more than 10 hours, some large factories and even the introduction of day and night classes to work alternately. Some factories also on women workers, the implementation of piecework wage system, according to the survey of agricultural business, 1901 the Kansai region 16 cotton spinning factory, 27 229 workers have 16 154 people paid for piecework, accounted for 59%. The factory implementation of piecework wage system for the purpose of nothing more than is to improve production efficiency and solve the problem of the shortage of workers, and ease the contradiction between the labor and capital. But the increase in production efficiency is to increase the labor intensity of workers, "women workers regardless of their own labor intensity and the body's ability to work, in order to improve the production, resulting in a competition, or in the provision of time before starting work, or after work to continue to work. Less work eighteen hours, more than twenty-two hours of work". Due to work under conditions of extreme harshness and labor environment health, many workers staining of tuberculosis and other respiratory system disease, resulting in ever die.
Second is to depress the wages of female workers. In the work of the high intensity of labor, while the capitalists also depress the wages of workers. At that time, the workers' wages were very low. Such as in some textile mills, weavers 2 - 1 (anti width of about 34 cm and a length of 10 m) to earn money wages 2 5 per cent (1 yen one percent of the money, 1 per cent for one tenth of the money). 1894, Gifu Prefecture hood pine town of silk reeling machinery factory workers work every day for up to 15 to 16 hours, and formal worker's monthly wage but 1 yen to 3 yen, far below the other national textile workers wages at the same time. In 1898, the Indian textile workers monthly wages for an average of eight yen to 9 yen, and the monthly wages of male workers in Japan to 7 yen, women only 4 yen. Compared with that of the advanced industrial countries of the United kingdom. In particular, workers wages are significantly lower than men, and the same industry in 1889 only 48.1% of the wages of male workers, but also for the 62.8% to 1900. Even if such meager wages in many cases can not be paid in full, often be deducted compulsory savings, meals, accommodation, advance payment of the wages and fine, the real hand wage depleted.
And there is a restriction on the freedom of women. In the development of the textile industry before and after the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, labor shortage problem has been highlighted capitalists to take various ways to recruit workers and to limit the flow. Such as the establishment of a boarding system, set up the dormitory administrator, called the management, but in reality monitoring. A number of factories have been locked in the night of the night to prevent the female workers from running away at night, which not only limits the freedom of women, but also makes it difficult to escape from the fire. Also in order to prevent workers fled, many factories established mandatory savings system monthly mandatory deduction a portion of their wages as savings, and the provisions of workers if the escape or break the regulation will not be refunded. In 1902, 47 factories were investigated and 26 of them were forced to make a mandatory savings system. Each month, the factory will deduct 6% to 3% of the workers' wages as a deposit, or by the social security management, or in the bank. Compulsory deposit system is a tool to limit workers' freedom completely, so it is called "leave gold" ".
Two, expand the opportunities for women, but women's education rights and interests are misunderstood
Women can not enjoy equal education with men's rights and interests of the phenomenon has been a long time, and generally exist in all countries in the world, Japan is no exception. Nara, the era of peace, to cling to power as a noble daughter, let women's childhood education. To the Wu family, the samurai class also emulate the aristocratic society, strengthen the family education of women. The Edo period, with the increased demand for commodity economy development and chonin culture prosperity, society of reading literacy, women's education also by the public, the Wu family miss extended to general family of ordinary woman. In the form of education, some telakoya began to recruit female students, our school began to set up a part of women's classroom. The women's education of modern family education gradually break the barriers, women's school education began to sprout. After the Meiji Restoration, Japan will be "civilized" as one of the three basic national policy. 1871 establishment, Ministry of education, specifically responsible for the school and all the educational affairs, has opened a girls' school, to develop educational system, sent female students, as a prelude to the modern women's education.
Starting from the elementary education, August 1872, the Meiji government promulgated the academic award of Gaoyu "initiative:" the average person (Hua Shi family farming and women) will Yap were all households, home without exception ". In August 3, 1872, the "school system" formally promulgated and implemented, "all the people must enter the school", the proposition that women and men as subject to education, and even the provisions of the act of not entering the school will be fined or sentencing. But at the time of the folk family is still generally considered the woman is the home of the helper, labor, but also need to pay the entrance fee and tuition fees and fees, so the actual enrollment rate is not high. 1873 men's enrollment rate was 39.9%, the woman was 15.1%; the man in 1875 to reach 50.8%, the woman was only 18.7%. For the sluggish development of women's education status, the Sino Japanese war reparations. In 1900 the school make correct "provisions of the common school education for compulsory education, official common school no longer impose tuition fees. 1907 will be extended to 6 years of compulsory education.
On the modern Japanese women's secondary education, before the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895 to Tokyo Women's school as represented by very few girls real commitment to a secondary education for girls in the task. These girls school in English and other foreign schools as the main course, pay attention to intellectual education. In 1895, "the provisions of the higher women's school" announced that the higher women's schools, such as the qualifications, curriculum, etc.. In 1899, Ministry of Education officially promulgated the women's higher school order ", involving women's higher school education, admission, learning years, curriculum, teacher qualifications, preparation, equipment and other aspects. The provisions on the school of women's higher after the introduction, development of women's higher schools, 1899 Japan national government girls high school 30, in study female 7 023 people. In 1907 the school growth for 108, students also increased to 33 776. Since then, Ministry of education and revised many times the school female higher order, 1910 additional science high school for girls, in 1920 will system consists of four years of changed to 5 years, and set higher, 2 to 3 years. At this point, the modern Japan's secondary education system of the basic stereotypes.
Modern Japanese education, especially women's education is in the process of the modernization of commendable work, to enlighten the people, improve the quality of the people play a important reuse, the success of Japanese capitalism industrialization also with the development of education has a direct relationship. However, from the perspective of women's rights and interests, we will find that there are many problems in the modern Japanese women's education, for women's rights and interests have many misunderstanding.
First, from the point of view of women's education, the development of women's education in Modern Japan is not to protect women's rights and interests. Liberal educator Mori Yurei served as Minister of education in the Enlightenment had pointed out:
"Women's education is to cultivate the woman as a good wife, man's mother, and the management of family, influence children's temperament can", although he is standing in the country, the fundamental education, education in women's education, the development of women's education is directly related to the safety of women's education, but apparently he has not from women's own development needs, from the need to protect women's rights.
In October 1890, Emperor Meiji personally issued the "imperial rescript on education", to the highest authority of the state established the general principle of moral education in Modern Japan. The imperial rescript on education in traditional Confucian ethics as the center, advocate the integration of family and state, the statesman is simply "couple phase and the", consolidate the virtues of Confucian ethics in the women's moral education in an important position. After the promulgation of the "imperial rescript on education". The school will be listed the top priority for the school education of women's moral self-cultivation education, conservation chastity and filial piety and modesty of feminine virtue ethics education replaced the early intellectual education has become the core of women's education. "In accordance with the spirit of the imperial rescript on education, conservation accomplishment," has always been the basic principle of the modern Japanese women's education and the main content. After the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, establish the good wife and virtuous mother Marxist education philosophy, asked the woman to have certain knowledge accomplishment, and competent xiangfujiaozi "wife" duties to; also stressed the need to adhere to the virtues, to maintain the traditional family system "pure and fine morals". The unity of the progressive and conservative nature is to safeguard national interests as the ultimate goal.
Secondly, the content of female education, mainly in order to meet the needs of family life. In the period of "educational system", women's textbook is from western translation domestic textbooks, such as the home economics essence the health of "the children of grass" "private economy", which with men to learn science, economy mainly formed sharp contrast.
The education thought of the modern conservative Confucianism revival period, to strengthen the female moral education, secondary education for girls in specialized subjects offered "advocating the spirit of diligence, frugality, order, thorough, cleaning Nian" culture education. In addition, specifically for women's ad hoc a tailor and other subjects. This education is beneficial to improve the quality of family life, but also to a certain extent to the children's education is beneficial, but the role is limited to the family level, the training of female students, most of the knowledge and vision, social adaptability is poor, and ultimately in the domestic labor in the end of their life.
Third, there is a big difference between the modern Japanese women's education rights and men's education. As mentioned above, in the philosophy of education, women education focusing on cultivating virtues ethics of conservation and housekeeping functions, and men's education and pay attention to intellectual education training. In the popularization of education, women's education later than men's education. From the female primary school enrollment rate, in 1897, the female primary school enrollment rate was 50.86%, while the man has more than 80%; from the secondary school enrollment rate, in 1875, the men's enrollment rate is nearly 30 times the woman, in 1905 narrowed to 3.3: 1, but still a gap between the men and women. Men and women in the school, the school education system of modern Japanese men and women are different. In the stage of primary education, the educational system, established a co educational system, but the woman more in ad hoc female primary schooling, or in study inferior elementary school after graduation into the girls' school. In the secondary education stage, "men and women do not learn".
In higher education, the man education system has been basically perfected, high school graduates can enter the Imperial University and other national universities to learn, and the general national university does not allow women to enter, the government run women's universities only women's higher normal school.
Three, the implementation of the "Meiji civil law", the female family status is increasingly low
The traditional family system has gradually formed in the long history of Japanese history. In ancient Japan, the family system and the home economics have been influenced by the Chinese mainland culture, such as the establishment of a new compound family - "rural households"". After the end of the era of the end of the era, Japan has gradually separated from the influence of the Chinese cultural circle, and the family system has changed. Japanese traditional family system, family in terms of structure, morphology, function and ethics has the characteristics of Japanese family system, it was born in the shogunate era "Consul General of family", then continue to consolidate, forming a "home" system in the Tokugawa era, so as to the summit of the family system. In the Meiji era through the "Meiji civil law" promulgated, "home" system in Japan to implement the implementation of the end of the Second World War it has been the Japanese family system and family life must comply with the guidelines.
The "Meiji civil law" is the inheritance and development of the traditional family system, which is the best interpretation of the spirit of the family system and the embodiment of its contents. The traditional family management system gives parents "home" power, Meiji civil law called "sovereignty" paternity "". "Sovereign households" include: family marriage and adoption issues, the head of the household can make the contrary from books and refused to resume its nationality (Article 75), on Inheritance and the separation matters must go through the consent of the head of the household (No. 743) and so on; "paternity" include: exercise paternity father or mother care, education minor children's rights and obligations (article 879), decided to children the possibility of military service (article 881), an occupation (the 883), within the scope of personally disciplinary children (article 882), management of their property (article 884) etc..
(two) the system of family and family. The so-called home tuk is heir to inherit the former head of the household owns all the rights and obligations, including property, inheritance, family inheritance. The Meiji civil code "will be the home of governor succession of legalization, and further defined the familyheadship inherited succession principles for men's standard, dizi standard, the eldest son of the standard (Article 97). Also admitted that "son of", namely, incompetence, female sub family can adopt "adopted son" or "son-in-law adopted son". The home of the family is to promote the interests of the home is higher than all, only consider the continuation of the family and prosperity, ignoring the wishes of the individual, the family is the root cause of inequality.
(three) think that women are inferior to men thought. Under the modern family system, women are not entitled to the status. The "Meiji civil law" will be defined as "family", "relatives of the head of household and their spouses in the home", clearly the spouse of the family members of the final. Under the male standard family, the status of the female is rather low. First of all, in the couple relationship, although the abolition of the system, but the recognition of private children. While her husband claimed illegitimate child called bastard, his wife claimed only illegitimate child. Bastard in home tuk heir sequence in the legitimate daughter before, while the illegitimate ranks last; the Meiji civil code "while giving women the right to divorce, but in the specific provisions or gender. If the wife and the husband of adultery, the husband can divorce, and the wife only in the husband committed adultery and sentenced to the case, can be proposed to divorce (813rd). Secondly, in the parent-child relationship, the father is the main paternity, and my mother as multiply inherit the family business tools and servants, only in "father unknown, death, home or not to exercise parental authority" to exercise parental authority (article 877). Also on the property, wife have no right to the management of family property, even their dowry to handed over the management of her husband; for her husband's heritage, which provides that only in the case without descendants, but the wife does inherit her husband's legacy may, in fact, wife inheritance heritage is very small.
Can be seen, in the "Meiji civil law" as the representative of the modern family system, the female status is extremely low. The family system emphasizes the inheritance inheritance, emphasizing male based longitudinal relationship between father and son, and relations between husband and wife, the mother child relationship all belongs to the father son relationship, it is typical patriarchal society of feudal ethics. In the family system, women not married obey commands as the father of parents, after marriage to obey her husband and old obey the eldest son of patrimony, life in a "three realms without a home" position.
Four, to stimulate the awareness of women in politics, but women are still not involved in the regime
Japanese women have had a brilliant performance in the political arena. In ancient Japan, appeared as Himiko, a queen, and magic, iide queen female leader. By the end of the sixth Century to the early eighth Century, there have been 6, 8 generation Japanese Female Emperor Dragon official. From the end of the era of peace to the end of the Warring States period, the emergence of the general door, Hino Fuko and Houjyo Masako, such as the actual power of the outstanding women.
Although the existence of individual outstanding women, but Wu family has been a real social, women in the political, family and other aspects of the right position. Especially in the Edo era, under the Bakuhan system, as the local leader of the daimyo who regularly to Edo City audience general to discuss politics. Their wives are ordered in the fief, not allowed to roam freely between the city of Edo and local, but did not have the opportunity act Zheng and hansei contact. While the civilian men and women should abide by the hierarchical identity system, even the freedom of life, freedom of action should be limited, but also has no political rights, the Japanese women and the regime is insulated.
After the Meiji Restoration, Japan established the Tenno system nation regime, implementation of the unified national family system, deny individual, emphasizing women for the society and male sacrifice peace and happiness is a matter of course. For the royal family. In 1889 promulgated the "model of the royal family" established primogeniture, directly deny women the right to inherit the throne. For ordinary people, the establishment of the "home" in the system and the concept of "home", for women were to have the courage to sacrifice self happiness and submission, patience virtues education as the center, pay attention to shaping to cultivate their children "virtuous mother and her husband's" good wife ", the women firmly restricted within the family, women do not have any political rights. In 1890, according to the "Meiji Constitution" provisions, resulting in first house tax by more male bourgeois elections. After the election, the Senate soon promulgated the "law" and the social gatherings, which provides:
"The organizers of the political rally are limited to the adult men who have the right to vote" (third); the women may not take part in the political rally (fourth); the women may not join political association (twenty-fifth). This is the first law in the history of modern Japan to prohibit women to participate in the political activities of the law, from now on, Japanese women were completely excluded from politics. 10 years later in 1900, the Japanese government promulgated the "law of the police and the police," which provides that "the prohibition of women to participate in political association", "the prohibition of female political participation", reiterated the prohibition of women's political participation.
After the middle period of Meiji, freedom of the civil rights movement surged against the provisions of the Meiji government, requirement of equality of the voice rising, there has been a number of representative of women activists to Kusunose Kita, Kishida Junko, Fukuda hideko etc.. They founded the magazine, issued a declaration, organized women's groups, carried out a variety of petitions, for women's legitimate rights and interests, especially the right to participate in politics and struggle. Some women's participation in politics and other women's rights as the goal of the progress of women's groups have been set up. In September 1911, the women's movement home Hiratsuka Thunderbird (1886 - 1971) established the Qing Ta and founded female literary magazine "green Ta". Soon, a number of accepted bourgeois enlightenment education and the awakening of progress in women, such as Yosano Akiko, ITO wild branch, Oku Meno, she quit and have joined, they criticized the feudal patriarchal, advocate women's liberation, the green Ta become women specialized publications, around in the "green Ta" around the progress of women and other women movement together, to fight for women's political rights to carry out a series of activities began the real women campaign. Since then, the new women's Association, the women's political participation, women's participation in politics to get the alliance, the women's alliance and other women's organizations have been set up. Despite a series of efforts, Japanese women had no right to participate in political affairs until after the Second World War.
However, at that time, women's participation in politics has its own limitations. Japanese women by the shackles of the traditional family system, coupled with the oppression of the patriarchal society, their power is more lonely, the campaign is not complete, the activities of the content is only in a declaration, the establishment of groups, a lot of ideas are not mature, and the number of participating in sports is limited, limited to the upper middle class women, so the results are not significant. It is due to the above problems, the majority of female groups in the war of aggression against China after Japan launched the war of aggression - "Lugou Bridge incident" after the political turn. Chikawa Bomie et al. From the initial opposition to the war of aggression, the female participation in the wartime system and the women's liberation, that support the government's war is also playing women's value, fantasy, in order to achieve the ultimate goal of women. Thus, during the Second World War, Japan Women's movement groups deviated from the requirements to obtain the goal of participating in and on the nature of the activities also changed gradually embarked on a complete departure from the crossroads of women's movement in the direction of development.
In summary, after the Sino Japanese War, Japanese capitalism development into the fast lane, Japanese women's employment, education, marriage and family, participation in employment also changed. Japan's victory in the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, resulting in the spread of Japanese power consciousness of the rapid expansion and militarism trend, the government used the school education in the popularity of a wide range of female inculcate the ideology of militarism, later Japanese women become war accomplice buried seeds.
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[3] Inoue Kiyo. Japanese women's history [M]. Tokyo: three one study, 1956:194.